28 January 2026

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Key messages

• The Amphibian & Reptile Conservation Trust recognises concerns about disease in wild reptiles.
• Precautionary measures should be built into activities undertaken by those undertaking fieldwork on sites supporting wild reptiles.
• We welcome further research to provide the basis for specific measures to prevent disease transmission to wild reptiles or between sites.
• We also welcome further research on measures to reduce the risk of zoonotic infections (diseases which can pass from reptiles to humans).

 

Where there is a pressing need to capture animals, for example for research or translocation, disposable gloves should be worn.

Background

Disease has been found to be a key driver in amphibian declines around the world and, in response to this, guidance has been produced to reduce the risks of its spread by those working with amphibians in Britain (ARG UK, 2017).  In contrast, the understanding of disease in wild reptiles and the impacts on populations are relatively poorly understood.

Ophidiomycosis, often known informally as snake fungal disease, has caused declines in wild populations in North America.  It has been found in captive snakes and in wild grass snakes in Britain, affecting survival of the latter.  Population impacts are not fully understood, but initial findings indicate the potential for harm.

Research has confirmed that, as well as fungi, other types of organism can cause disease leading to ill health and mortality in wild reptiles. These include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, nematodes and arthropods. For some diseases, it appears that impacts could be of conservation importance, but for most further research is needed.

Additionally, reptiles can transmit pathogens to people, causing disease – a process known as zoonosis. Reptiles can harbour ticks which may carry disease-causing bacteria such as Borrelia, but the implications for human health are currently unclear.

Likely transmission routes/risks

Captive to wild In general, wildlife disease is more problematic when humans move animals over great distances and bring novel pathogens into contact with previously unexposed populations.  Hence, wildlife trade and resultant captive stock may pose a significant disease risk.  Release of captive reptiles into the wild, keeping captive stock alongside wild-caught reptiles and mixing captive and wild animals during outreach activities are potential transmission routes.

Translocation Moving reptiles between sites, for development mitigation or conservation translocation, risks spreading pathogens between locations.

Between individual animals Increasing the amount of contact between individual reptiles, and between reptiles and derivatives, such as faeces and shed skin, could potentially increase the rate of disease spread. This may arise, for example, in collection and holding containers used in mitigation or translocation work.

Fomites Objects that have contact with wild reptiles, such as artificial cover objects, collecting bags or buckets, or human hands, may be vectors of disease between individual reptiles.

Research is needed on all of the above potential transmission routes, to clarify their significance and where appropriate to identify effective risk reduction measures.

Recommendations to reduce risk

We recommend that reptile fieldworkers consider the following precautionary measures when undertaking reptile fieldwork:

• Regularly clean and disinfect footwear and field gear
• Exercise good hand hygiene
• If your fieldwork involves visits to more than one reptile site, consider using a dedicated set of field equipment for each site
• Take particular precautions if you notice any apparently sick or dead reptiles where disease may be a cause
• Avoid handling reptiles unless absolutely necessary, and if you must handle them, use disposable gloves
• Unless there is a sound justification, avoid moving (translocating) reptiles from one site to another or bringing them into captivity, and if doing so ensure that you assess the risk of disease transmission and take measures to reduce risk as appropriate
• Anyone who keeps pet reptiles should ideally avoid fieldwork at wild reptile sites, but if that is necessary then undertake stringent biosecurity measures before and after visiting the field
• When in the field, never use equipment previously used for captive reptiles
• Never release pet animals into the wild; note that in any case this is generally illegal.

 

We also recommend fieldworkers consider the advice and guidance issued by others, as included within “Further information” below.

What to do on finding dead/diseased reptiles

If a sick or injured reptile is found, a local veterinarian, the RSPCA or an experienced herpetologist or wildlife rehabilitator may be able to provide advice or assistance.

Any sick or dead reptile should be reported to Garden Wildlife Health, 0207 449 6685 to assist in the investigation of reptile disease.  Photographs of affected animals and the site where they are found can be helpful, along with information on the potential disease symptoms observed. Note that reports of reptile ill health are welcome not just from gardens, but in the wild, too.  If a freshly dead reptile is found, in a good state of preservation, it may be possible to make arrangements for post-mortem examination to test for disease. 

Further information

Allain, S. J. R., Leech, D. I., Hopkins, K., Seilern-Moy, K., Rodriguez-Ramos Fernandez, J., Griffiths, R. A. & Lawson, B. (2024). Characterisation, prevalence and severity of skin lesions caused by ophidiomycosis in a population of wild snakes. Scientific Reports 14, 5162. 

Allender, M. C., Raudabaugh, D. B., Gleason, F. H., & Miller, A. N. (2015). The natural history, ecology, and epidemiology of Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola and its potential impact on free-ranging snake populations. Fungal Ecology 17, 187-196.

ARG UK (2016).  ARG UK Advice Note 7: Attending Public Events. Amphibian and Reptile Groups of the United Kingdom.

ARG UK (2017).  ARG UK Advice Note 4: Amphibian Disease Precautions: A Guide for UK Fieldworkers. Amphibian and Reptile Groups of the United Kingdom.

Bletz, M. C., Julian, J. T., Kirchgessner, M. S., Drasher, J. M., Henry, P. F., Jewell, S. D., ... & Smith, S. A. (2023). Disinfection protocols for herpetofaunal pathogens. Herpetological Review 54(2), 200-203.

Canadian Wildlife Health Co-operative (2016). Snake Fungal Disease.

Di Nicola, M. R., Rubiola, S., Cerullo, A., Basciu, A., Massone, C., Zabbia, T., ... & Marini, D. (2025). Microorganisms in wild European reptiles: bridging gaps in neglected conditions to inform disease ecology research. International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife 27, 101113.

Fagundes-Moreira, R., Otranto, D., Montinaro, G., Filippi, E., Lorusso, A., Petrini, A., ... & Mendoza-Roldan, J. A. (2025). Cultural human-snake interactions in the festa dei serpari as an opportunity for the surveillance of bacterial pathogens of zoonotic concern. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 118, 102325.

Farrell, T. M., Walden, H. D., & Ossiboff, R. J. (2023). The invasive pentastome Raillietiella orientalis in a banded water snake from the pet trade. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 35(2), 201-203.

Franklinos, L. H., Lorch, J. M., Bohuski, E., Rodriguez-Ramos Fernandez, J., Wright, O. N., Fitzpatrick, L., ... & Lawson, B. (2017). Emerging fungal pathogen Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola in wild European snakes. Scientific Reports 7(1), 3844.

Garden Wildlife Health www.gardenwildlifehealth.org

Jaffe, J., Januszczak, I. & Sainsbury, A. W. (2019). Reptile Disease Precautions: A Guide for UK Fieldworkers. Conference poster, Herpetofauna Workers Meeting 2019.

Köhler, C. F., Sprong, H., Fonville, M., Esser, H., de Boer, W. F., van Der Spek, V., & Spitzen‐van der Sluijs, A. (2023). Sand lizards (Lacerta agilis) decrease nymphal infection prevalence for tick‐borne pathogens Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in a coastal dune ecosystem. Journal of Applied Ecology 60(6), 1115-1126.

Ladner, J. T., Palmer, J. M., Ettinger, C. L., Stajich, J. E., Farrell, T. M., Glorioso, B. M., ... & Lorch, J. M. (2022). The population genetics of the causative agent of snake fungal disease indicate recent introductions to the USA. PLoS Biology 20(6), e3001676.

Marschang, R. E., Origgi, F. C., Stenglein, M. D., Hyndman, T. H., Wellehan, J. F., & Jacobson, E. R. (2020). Viruses and viral diseases of reptiles. In Infectious diseases and pathology of reptiles (pp. 575-704). CRC Press.

Mendoza-Roldan, J. A., Modry, D., & Otranto, D. (2020). Zoonotic parasites of reptiles: a crawling threat. Trends in Parasitology 36(8), 677-687.

Nowak, T. A., Burke, R. L., Diuk‐Wasser, M. A., & Lin, Y. P. (2024). Lizards and the enzootic cycle of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. Molecular microbiology 121(6), 1262-1272.

Ornamental Aquatic Trade Association (OATA) and the Reptile and Exotic Pet Trade Association (REPTA). Pet-Code-of-Practice.pdf.

Palmisano, J. N., Farrell, T. M., Harman, M. E., Walden, H. D., Hauck, H., Pushinsky, A., ... & Ossiboff, R. J. (2026). Discovery of Novel Definitive Hosts Broadens the Known Host Range of the Invasive Pentastome, Raillietiella orientalis, Across Snakes, Lizards, and Chelonians. The Journal of Wildlife Diseases 1(ahead of print).

Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation

Pees, M., Brockmann, M., Steiner, N., & Marschang, R. E. (2023). Salmonella in reptiles: a review of occurrence, interactions, shedding and risk factors for human infections. Frontiers in cell and developmental biology 11, 1251036.

Public Health England (2015). Reptiles pose a risk of salmonella infection.

Public Health England (2021). Reducing the risks of Salmonella infection from reptiles.

RAVON (2025). Herkenningskaart Ziektes Reptielen (Reptile Disease Identification Card). RAVON, Nijmegen.

Rzadkowska, M., Allender, M. C., O'Dell, M., & Maddox, C. (2016). Evaluation of common disinfectants effective against Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, the causative agent of snake fungal disease. The Journal of Wildlife Diseases 52(3), 759-762.

Schilliger, L., Paillusseau, C., François, C., & Bonwitt, J. (2023). Major emerging fungal diseases of reptiles and amphibians. Pathogens 12(3), 429.

Tillis, S B., Josimovich, J. M., Miller, M. A., Hoon-Hanks, L. L., Hartmann, A. H. Claunch, N. M., Iredale, M. E. et al. (2022).  Divergent serpentoviruses in free-ranging invasive pythons and native colubrids in southern Florida, United States. Viruses 14(12), 2726.

Walden, H. D., Greiner, E. C., & Jacobson, E. R. (2020). Parasites and parasitic diseases of reptiles. In Infectious Diseases and Pathology of Reptiles (pp. 859-968). CRC Press.